First Project Wayanad Tribal Groups Paniyas (Ippimala makkal)
| Paniyas (Ippimala makkal) |
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Background and Brief HistoryThe Ippimala makkal (i.e., Children of the Ippi Hills, a legendary mountain range) is the largest single tribe in Kerala (Josephat, 1997) and constitutes 46% of total tribal population in Wayanad (Cruz Garcia, 2006). Their origins are unknown, but some researchers believe them to be of African ancestry because of prominent physical features, such as dark skin, curly hair, and broad noses (Jajy, n.d.).Although there are no accurate dates available, their history, transmitted primarily through oral tradition, points to a prehistoric period when the Ippimala makkal successfully and autonomously pursued a food gathering way of life. The second part of their history refers to the subjugation of the Ippimala makkal, which, according to research, is perhaps when they came to be called “Paniya” meaning “laborer” (Kulirani, n.d.). As slaves/bonded laborers, the Paniyas were sold with plantations (“Paniyas,” 2008) by upper class communities and landlords for meager wages (usually an amount of paddy just sufficient enough for daily survival) (Devan, 2006). Besides agricultural duties, they were also employed as coffee thieves by higher castes (“Paniyas,” 2008) and were expected to do other domestic work for their employers (Devan, 2006). Throughout the various interventions—conquest and migrations from neighboring kingdoms, British establishment of plantations and policies regarding land and forests, integration programs by Kerala’s government—the Paniyas were denied the opportunity to emerge on their own because they were deprived of land possession and totally dependent on agriculture work. The immigration of communities with better farming skills resulted in further subjugation and eroded labor opportunities for the Paniyas (Kulirani, n.d.). The general opinion about the Paniyas was that they were “undependable, slow, and lazy.” A more recent study has found that the Paniyas have absorbed this sense of inferior status and lack the capacity to aspire (Mohindra, Haddad, & Narayana, 2006). Socioeconomic DevelopmentTraditionally, economic opportunities were closely intertwined with social relationships meant to ensure security for all members of the Paniya community. More recently, however, the Paniyas find themselves at the losing end of socio-economic changes taking place in Wayanad (Narayana, 2005). Changes in property rights to land and water resources, implemented by the government and influenced by immigrant communities, have had adverse effects on the Paniyas, who are losing their homelands and means of livelihood in the name of national integration and development. The Paniyas’ ability to voice their interests and influence institutions is limited due to their lack of status and education (Padmanabhan, 2004).Though they participate in the modern market economy, the Paniyas still hold a worldview similar to their food gathering days. They work only to meet their immediate needs, not to make savings for the future, so it is not uncommon to hear about starvation death among Paniyas during leaner agricultural periods. Many have improved their living conditions, thanks to government welfare programs, but the vast majority still have unresolved problems such as landlessness and lack of means to an assured day-to-day livelihood (Kulirani, n.d.). EducationSchooling is a major problem for Paniya children because they are not actively involved. Language is the biggest constraint, as different indigenous groups have their own dialects. India’s conventional education system is not relevant for tribal children’s lives, and formal education often has negative influences on tribal values and practices. The primary channel of social learning and knowledge transmission is through mother or female relatives, then friends and neighbors (Cruz Garcia, 2006).Culture of FoodCompared to other socio-cultural groups in the area, the Paniyas consume the highest quantity of wild food plants. However, their knowledge and consumption of wild food plants is decreasing due to the eroding availability of these plant resources and changing perceptions about wild food plants, which are increasingly seen as symbols of poverty and “tribalness.” As a result, fewer children are participating in the gathering of wild food plants or even learning about them. Women’s contribution to food supplies through the collection of wild foods, however, has paved the way for a gender construction that is somewhat egalitarian (Cruz Garcia, 2006).Values & BeliefsPaniya marriages (no custom of pre-puberty marriage) are arranged by the parents, and monogamy is generally accepted (“Paniyas,” 2008). They have basic ideas about religion with a major deity called “Kali” and worship the Banyan tree (“Paniyas,” 2008), which they hesitate to cut for fear of falling sick. Dead ancestors are considered to be gods for which rituals and ceremonies are held on certain days of the year, especially during critical stages of the farming process (Kjosavik, 2006). Their struggle for land appears to have assumed a spiritual meaning linked to identity and attachment to place.References
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